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The history of the United Kingdom as a unified sovereign state began in with the political union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland[1] into a united kingdom called Great Britain. The first decades were marked by Jacobite risings which ended with defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in Invictory in the Seven Years' War led to the dominance of the British Empire, which was to be the foremost global power for over a century and grew to become the largest empire in history.

As a result, the culture of the United Kingdomand its industrial, political, constitutional, educational and linguistic influence, became worldwide. Infollowing the Anglo-Irish Treatymost of Ireland seceded to become the Irish Free State ; a day later, Northern Ireland seceded from the Free State and returned to the United Kingdom.

As a result, in the United Kingdom changed its formal title to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland," [3] usually shortened to "Britain" and after to the "United Kingdom" or "UK". In the Second World Warin which the Soviet Union, Nationalist China and the US joined Britain as Allied powersBritain and its Empire fought a successful war against Germany, Italy and Japan. The cost was high and Britain no longer had the wealth to maintain an empire, so it granted independence to most of the Empire.

The new states typically joined the Commonwealth of Nations. Since the s large-scale devolution movements in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales have changed the political structure of the country. The Kingdom of Great Britain came into being on 1 Mayas a result of the political union of the Kingdom of England which included Wales and the Kingdom of Scotland. The terms of the union had been negotiated the previous year, and laid out in the Treaty of Union.

The parliaments of Scotland and of England then each ratified the treaty via respective Acts of Union. Slightly more than one-hundred years later, the Treaty of Union enabled the two kingdoms to be combined into a single kingdom, merging the two parliaments into a single parliament of Great Britain.

Queen Annewho was reigning at the time of the union, had favoured deeper political integration between the two kingdoms and became the first monarch of Great Britain. The union was valuable to England's security because Scotland relinquished first, the right to choose a different monarch on Anne's death and second, the right to independently ally with a European power, which could then use Scotland as a base for the invasion of England.

Although now a single kingdom, certain aspects of the former independent kingdoms remained separate, as agreed in the terms in the Treaty of Union.

Scottish and English law remained separate, as did the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Anglican Church of England. England and Scotland also continued to each have its own system of education. The creation of Great Britain happened during the War of the Spanish Successionin which just before his death in William III had reactivated the Grand Alliance against France.

His successor, Anne, continued the war. The Duke of Marlborough won a series of brilliant victories over the French, England's first major battlefield successes on the Continent since the Hundred Years War. France was nearly brought to its knees bywhen King Louis XIV made a desperate appeal to the French people.

Afterwards, his general Marshal Villars managed to turn the tide in favour of France. A more peace-minded government came to power in Great Britain, and the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt in — ended the war. Queen Anne died inand the Elector of Hanover, George Louis, became king as George I — He paid more attention to Hanover and surrounded himself with Germans, making him an unpopular king, However he did build up the army and created a more stable political system in Britain and helped bring peace to northern Europe.

The son of James II planned to invade England, but before he could do so, John Erskine, Earl of Marlaunched an invasion from Scotland, which was easily defeated. George II — enhanced the stability of the constitutional system, with a government run by Sir Robert Walpole during the period — In coalition with the rising power Prussia, defeated France in the Seven Years' War —and won full control of Canada. George III reigned —; he was born in Britain, never visited Hanover, and spoke English as his first language.

Frequently reviled by Americans as a tyrant and the instigator of the American War of Independence, he was insane off and on after as his eldest son served as regent. The reign was notable for the building of a second empire based in India, Asia and Africa, the beginnings of the industrial revolution that made Britain an economic powerhouse, and above all the life and death struggle with the French, the French Revolutionary Wars —, ending in a draw and a short truce, and the epic Napoleonic Wars —ending with the decisive defeat of Napoleon.

The era was pro as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. The South Sea Bubble was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The South Sea Company was a private business corporation set up in London ostensibly to grant trade monopolies in South America. It issued stock four times in that reached about 8, investors. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators.

Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. Robert Walpole managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide. Hypocrisy became a major topic in English political history in the early 18th century.

The Toleration Act of allowed for certain rights, but it left Protestant Nonconformists Such as Congregationalists and Baptists deprived of important rights, including that of office-holding. Nonconformists who wanted office ostentatiously took the Anglican sacrament once a year in order to avoid the restrictions. High Church Anglicans were outraged and outlawed what they called "occasional conformity" in with the Occasional Conformity Act This campaign of moderation versus zealotry, peaked in during the impeachment trial of high church preacher Henry Sacheverell.

Historian Mark Knights, argues that by its very ferocity, the debate may have led to more temperate and less hypercharged political discourse.

Occasional conformity was restored by the Whigs when they returned to power in English author Bernard Mandeville famous 's " Fable of the Bees " explored the nature of hypocrisy in contemporary European society. He tried to demonstrate the universality of human appetites for corporeal pleasures. He argued that the efforts of self-seeking entrepreneurs are the basis of emerging commercial and industrial society, a line of thought that influenced Adam Smith and 19th century Utilitarianism.

The tension between these two approaches modes ambivalences and contradictions—concerning the relative power of norms and interests, the relationship between motives and behaviours, and the historical variability of human cultures. In the to era, Whig aristocrats in England boasted of their special benevolence for the common people. They claimed to be guiding and counseling reform initiatives to prevent the outbreaks of popular discontent that caused instability and revolution across Europe.

However Tory and radical critics accused the Whigs of hypocrisy—alleging they were deliberately using the slogans of reform and democracy to boost themselves into power while preserving their precious aristocratic exclusiveness. Mitchell defends the Whigs, pointing out that thanks to them radicals always had friends at the centre of the political elite, and thus did not feel as marginalized as in most of Europe.

He points out that the debates on the Reform Bill showed that reformers would indeed receive a hearing at parliamentary level with a good chance of success.

Liberal and radical observers noted the servility of the English lower classes, the obsession everyone had with rank and title, the extravagance of the aristocracy, a supposed anti-intellectualism, and a pervasive hypocrisy that extended into such areas as social reform.

There were not so many conservative visitors. They praised the stability of English society, its ancient constitution, and reverence for the past; they ignored the negative effects of industrialization.

From toBritain was involved in wars or rebellions. It maintained a relatively large and expensive Royal Navyalong with a small standing army. When the need arose for soldiers it hired mercenaries or financed allies who fielded armies. The rising costs of warfare forced a shift in government financing from the income from royal agricultural estates and special imposts and taxes to reliance on customs and excise taxes and, afteran income tax.

Working with bankers in the City, the government raised large loans during wartime and paid them off in peacetime. The demand for war supplies stimulated the industrial sector, particularly naval supplies, munitions and textiles, which gave Britain an advantage in international trade during the postwar years. The French Revolution polarized British political opinion in the s, with conservatives outraged at the killing of the king, the expulsion of the nobles, and the Reign of Terror.

Britain was at war against France almost continuously from until the final defeat of Napoleon in Conservatives castigated every radical opinion in Britain as "Jacobin" in reference to the leaders of the Terrorwarning that radicalism threatened an upheaval of British society.

The Anti-Jacobin sentiment, well expressed by Edmund Burke and many popular writers was strongest among the landed gentry and the upper classes. The Seven Years' Warwhich began inwas the first war waged on a global scale, fought in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines and coastal Africa. The signing of the Treaty of Paris had important consequences for Britain and its empire.

In North America, France's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the ceding of New France to Britain leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control and Louisiana to Spain.

Spain ceded Florida to Britain. In India, the Carnatic War had left France still in control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Britain.

The British victory over France in the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's dominant colonial power. During the s and s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of opposition to Parliament's repeated attempts to tax American colonists without their consent.

In the Patriots expelled royal officials and declared the independence of the United States of America. After capturing a British invasion army inthe US formed an alliance with France and in turn Spain aided Franceevening out the military balance. The British army controlled only a handful of coastal cities.

Taxes and deficits were high, government corruption was pervasive, and the war in America was entering its sixth year with no apparent end in sight. The Gordon Riots erupted in London during the spring ofin response to increased concessions to Catholics by Parliament. In October Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown, Virginia. The Treaty of Paris was signed informally terminating the war and recognising the independence of the United States.

The loss of the Thirteen Colonies, at the time Britain's most populous colonies, marked the transition between the "first" and "second" empires, [28] in which Britain shifted its attention to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nationspublished inhad argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.

The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after [29] confirmed Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success. During its first years of operation, the focus of the British East India Company had been trade, not the building of an empire in India. The British, led by Robert Clivedefeated the French and their Indian allies in the Battle of Plasseyleaving the Company in control of Bengal and a major military and political power in India.

On 22 AugustJames Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia [30] while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific. InJoseph BanksCook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in The British government had somewhat mixed reactions to the outbreak of the French Revolution inand when war broke out on the Continent init initially remained neutral.

But the following January, Louis XVI was beheaded. This combined with a threatened invasion of the Netherlands by France spurred Britain to declare war. For the next 23 years, the two nations were at war except for a short period in — Britain alone among the nations of Europe never submitted to or formed an alliance with France. Throughout the s, the British repeatedly defeated the navies of France and its allies, but were unable to perform any significant land operations. An Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands in accomplished little except the capture of the Dutch fleet.

At the threshold to the 19th century, Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleonin a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations: Napoleon threatened invasion of Britain itself, and with it, a fate similar to the countries of continental Europe that his armies had overrun.

On 1 Januarythe first day of the 19th century, the Great Britain and Ireland joined to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Events that culminated in the union with Ireland had spanned several centuries. Invasions from England by the ruling Normans from led to centuries of strife in Ireland and successive Kings of England sought both to conquer and pillage Ireland, imposing their rule by force throughout the entire island. In the early 17th century, large-scale settlement by Protestant settlers from both Scotland and England began, especially in the province of Ulsterseeing the displacement of many of the native Roman Catholic Irish inhabitants of this part of Ireland.

Since the time of the first Norman invaders from England, Ireland has been subject to control and regulation, firstly by England then latterly by Great Britain.

After the Irish Rebellion ofIrish Roman Catholics were banned from voting or attending the Irish Parliament. The new English Protestant ruling class was known as the Protestant Ascendancy.

Towards the end of the 18th century the entirely Protestant Irish Parliament attained a greater degree of independence from the British Parliament than it had previously held.

This ban was followed by others in and as part of a comprehensive system disadvantaging the Catholic community, and to a lesser extent Protestant dissenters. It was staged with the aim of creating a fully independent Ireland as a state with a republican constitution.

Despite assistance from France the Irish Rebellion of was put down by British forces. Possibly influenced by the War of American Independence —a united force of Irish volunteers used their influence to campaign for greater independence for the Irish Parliament.

This was granted ingiving free trade and legislative independence to Ireland. However, the French revolution had encouraged the increasing calls for moderate constitutional reform. The Society of United Irishmenmade up of Presbyterians from Belfast and both Anglicans and Catholics in Dublincampaigned for an end to British domination. Their leader Theobald Wolfe Tone —98 worked with the Catholic Convention of which demanded an end to the penal laws. Failing to win the support of the British government, he travelled to Parisencouraging a number of French naval forces to land in Ireland to help with the planned insurrections.

These were slaughtered by government forces, but these rebellions convinced the British under Prime Minister William Pitt that the only solution was to end Irish independence once and for all. The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was brought about by the Act of Unioncreating the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ". The Act was passed in both the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Irelanddominated by the Protestant Ascendancy and lacking representation of the country's Roman Catholic population.

Substantial majorities were achieved, and according to contemporary documents this was assisted by bribery in the form of the awarding of peerages and honours to opponents to gain their votes. Ireland thus became an integral part of the United Kingdom, sending around MPs to the House of Commons at Westminster and 28 representative peers to the House of Lords, elected from among their number by the Irish peers themselves, except that Roman Catholic peers were not permitted to take their seats in the Lords.

Part of the trade-off for the Irish Catholics was to be the granting of Catholic Emancipationwhich had been fiercely resisted by the all-Anglican Irish Parliament. However, this was blocked by King George IIIwho argued that emancipating the Roman Catholics would breach his Coronation Oath. The Roman Catholic hierarchy had endorsed the Union.

However the decision to block Catholic Emancipation fatally undermined the appeal of the Union. During the War of the Second Coalition —Britain occupied most of the French and Dutch colonies the Netherlands had been a satellite of France sincebut tropical diseases claimed the lives of over 40, troops. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain was forced to return most of the colonies.

The peace settlement was in effect only a ceasefire, and Napoleon continued to provoke the British by attempting a trade embargo on the country and by occupying the German city of Hanover a fief of the British crown. In Maywar was declared again. Napoleon's plans to invade Britain failed due to the inferiority of his navy, and inLord Nelson's fleet decisively defeated the French and Spanish at Trafalgar, which was the last significant naval action of the Napoleonic Wars.

The series of naval and colonial conflicts, including a large number of minor naval actions, resembled those of the French Revolutionary Wars and the preceding centuries of European warfare.

Conflicts in the Caribbean, and in particular the seizure of colonial bases and islands throughout the wars, could potentially have some effect upon the European conflict. The Napoleonic conflict had reached the point at which subsequent historians could talk of a " world war ". Only the Seven Years' War offered a precedent for widespread conflict on such a scale.

InNapoleon issued the series of Berlin Decreeswhich brought into effect the Continental System. This policy aimed to weaken the British export economy closing French-controlled territory to its trade. The British army remained a minimal threat to France; the British standing army of justat the height of the Napoleonic Wars hardly compared to France's army of a million men—in addition to the armies of numerous allies and several hundred thousand national guardsmen that Napoleon could draft into the military if necessary.

Although the Royal Navy effectively disrupted France's extra-continental trade—both by seizing and threatening French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessions—it could do nothing about France's trade with the major continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe. In addition, France's population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain.

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Many in the French government believed that isolating Britain from the Continent would end its economic influence over Europe and isolate it. Though the French designed the Continental System to achieve this, it never succeeded in its objective. Britain possessed the greatest industrial capacity in Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build up considerable economic strength through trade to its possessions from its rapidly expanding new Empire.

Britain's naval supremacy meant that France could never enjoy the peace necessary to consolidate its control over Europe, and it could threaten neither the home islands nor the main British colonies. The Spanish uprising in at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent. The Duke of Wellington and his army of British and Portuguese gradually pushed the French out of Spain and in earlyas Napoleon was being driven back in the east by the Prussians, Austrians, and Russians, Wellington invaded southern France.

After Napoleon's surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned, but when he escaped back into France inthe British and their allies had to fight him again. The armies of Wellington and Von Blucher defeated Napoleon once and for all at Waterloo. With a population of 16 million Britain was barely half the size of France with 30 million.

In terms of soldiers the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at aboutin The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax.

Napoleon also attempted economic warfare against Britain, especially in the Berlin Decree of It forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and installed the Continental System in Europe. All connections were to be cut, even the mail. British merchants smuggled in many goods and the Continental System was not a powerful weapon of economic war. Even more damage was done to the economies of France and its allies, which lost a useful trading partner.

Simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of with the United States. The "second war of independence" for the American, it was little noticed in Britain, where all attention was focused on the struggle with France.

The British could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in American frigates also inflicted a series of embarrassing defeats on the British navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe.

A stepped-up war effort that year brought about some successes such as the burning of Washington, but many influential voices such as the Duke of Wellington argued that an outright victory over the US was impossible. Peace was agreed to at the end ofbut Andrew Jacksonunaware of this, won a great victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in January news took several weeks to cross the Atlantic before the advent of steam ships.

Ratification of the Treaty of Ghent ended the war in February The major result was the permanent defeat of the Indian allies the British had counted upon.

The US-Canada border was demilitarised by both countries, and peaceful trade resumed, although worries of an American conquest of Canada persisted into the s. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars a very different country than it had been in As industrialisation progressed, society changed, becoming more urban and less rural. The postwar period saw an economic slump, and poor harvests and inflation caused widespread social unrest.

Europe after was on guard against a return of Jacobinism, and even liberal Britain saw the passage of the Six Acts inwhich proscribed radical activities. By the end of the s, along with a general economic recovery, many of these repressive laws were repealed and in new legislation guaranteed the civil rights of religious dissenters.

A weak ruler as regent —20 and king —30George IV let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far lesser role than his father, George III.

The principle now became established that the king accepts as prime minister the person who wins a majority in the House of Commons, whether the king personally favors him or not. His governments, with little help from the king, presided over victory in the Napoleonic Wars, negotiated the peace settlement, and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed.

His reign saw several reforms: There were no major wars until the Crimean War of — Britain intervened in Portugal in to defend a constitutional government there and recognising the independence of Spain's American colonies in The Whig Party recovered its strength and unity by supporting moral reforms, especially the reform of the electoral system, the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Catholics.

Catholic emancipation was secured in the Catholic Relief Act ofwhich removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics in Britain. The Whigs became champions of Parliamentary reform. They made Lord Grey prime minister —, and the Reform Act of became their signature measure. It broadened the franchise and ended the system of "rotten borough" and "pocket boroughs" where elections were controlled by powerful familiesand instead redistributed power on the basis of population.

It addedvoters to an electorate ofin England and Wales. The main effect of the act was to weaken the power of the landed gentry, and enlarge the power of the professional and business middle-class, which now for the first time had a significant voice in Parliament.

However, the great majority of manual workers, clerks, and farmers did not have enough property to qualify to vote. The aristocracy continued to dominate the government, the Army and Royal Navy, and high society. Chartism emerged after the Reform Bill failed to give the vote to the working class.

Activists denounced the 'betrayal' of the working class and the 'sacrificing' of their 'interests' by the 'misconduct' of the government. InChartists issued the People's Charter demanding manhood suffrage, equal sized election districts, voting by ballots, payment of MPs so poor men could serveannual Parliaments, and abolition of property requirements. Elites saw the movement as pathological, so the Chartists were unable to force serious constitutional debate.

Historians see Chartism as both a continuation of the 18th century fight against corruption and as a new stage in demands for democracy in an industrial society. In Parliament abolished slavery in the Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act The ten prime ministers under Victoria included: Lord MelbourneSir Robert PeelLord John RussellLord DerbyLord AberdeenLord PalmerstonBenjamin DisraeliWilliam Ewart GladstoneLord Salisburyand Lord Rosebery.

The aristocracy remained dominant: The number rose to by Reform legislation in, and weakened the aristocracy in terms of its control of the House of Commons. However, it ran the government: The seventh was the son of a duke. Two Peel and Gladstone emerged from the business community and only one Disraeli was a self-made man.

Of the cabinet members between andwere sons of peers. Prime Ministers of the period included: William Pitt the YoungerLord GrenvilleDuke of PortlandSpencer PercevalLord LiverpoolGeorge CanningLord GoderichDuke of WellingtonLord GreyLord Melbourneand Sir Robert Peel. Victoria became queen in at age Her long reign until saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power.

Exciting new technologies such as steam ships, railroads, photography, and telegraphs appeared, making the world much faster-paced. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics, and it was not affected by the wave of revolutions in The Victorian era saw the fleshing out of the second British Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with her coronation or the earlier passage of the Reform Act The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period.

Historians like Bernard Porter have characterized the mid-Victorian era, — as Britain's 'Golden Years. Much of the prosperity was due to the increasing industrialization, especially in textiles and machinery, as well as to the worldwide network of trade and engineering that produce profits for British merchants and experts from across the globe. There was peace abroad apart from the short Crimean war, —56and social peace at home. Opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter.

The Chartist movement, peaked as a democratic movement among the working class in ; its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions and cooperative societies.

The working class ignored foreign agitators like Karl Marx in their midst, and joined in celebrating the new prosperity. Employers typically were paternalistic, and generally recognized the trade unions. Middle-class reformers did their best to assist the working classes aspire to middle-class norms of 'respectability.

There was a spirit of libertarianism, says Porter, as people felt they were free. Taxes were very low, and government restrictions were minimal. There were still problem areas, such as occasional riots, especially those motivated by anti-Catholicism. Society was still ruled by the aristocracy and the gentry, which controlled high government offices, both houses of Parliament, the church, and the military.

Becoming a rich businessman was not as prestigious as inheriting a title and owning a landed estate. Literature was doing well, but the fine arts languished as the Great Exhibition of showcased Britain's industrial prowess rather than its sculpture, painting or music. The educational system was mediocre; the capstone universities outside Scotland were likewise mediocre. The Great London Exhibition of clearly demonstrated Britain's dominance in engineering and industry; that lasted until the rise of the United States and Germany in the s.

Using the imperial tools of free trade and financial investment, [56] it exerted major influence on many countries outside Europe, especially in Latin America and Asia. Thus Britain had both a formal Empire based on British rule and an informal one based on the British pound. One nagging fear was the possible collapse of the Ottoman Empire. It was well understood that a collapse of that country would set off a scramble for its territory and possibly plunge Britain into war.

To head that off Britain sought to keep the Russians from occupying Constantinople and taking over the Bosporous Straits, as well as from threatening India via Afghanistan. Despite mediocre generalship, they managed to capture the Russian port of Sevastopol, compelling Tsar Alexander II to ask for peace. The Congress of Berlin blocked Russia from imposing the harsh Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottoman Empire. But after Napoleon's downfall in the Franco-Prussian War inhe was allowed to spend his last years exiled in Britain.

During the American Civil War —British leaders personally disliked American republicanism and favoured the more aristocratic Confederacy, as it had been a major source of cotton for textile mills.

Prince Albert was effective in defusing a war scare in late The British people, who depended heavily on American food imports, generally favoured the United States.

In Septemberduring the Confederate invasion of MarylandBritain along with France contemplated stepping in and negotiating a peace settlement, which could only mean war with the United States. But in the same month, US president Abraham Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation.

Since support of the Confederacy now meant support for slavery, there was no longer any possibility of European intervention. Meanwhile, the British sold arms to both sides, built blockade runners for a lucrative trade with the Confederacy, and surreptitiously allowed warships to be built for the Confederacy.

The warships caused a major diplomatic row that was resolved in the Alabama Claims inin the Americans' favour. InBritain united most of its North American colonies as the Dominion of Canadagiving it self-government and responsibility for its internal affairs.

Britain handled foreign policy and defense. The second half of the 19th century saw a huge expansion of Britain's colonial empire in Asia. In the "Scramble for Africa", the boast was having the Union Sec role in stock market flying from "Cairo to Cape Town. It was the only power in Europe to have no conscription. The rise bollinger bands range the German Empire after posed a new challenge, for it along with the United States threatened to take Britain's place as the world's foremost industrial power.

Germany acquired a number of colonies in Africa and the Pacific, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck succeeded in achieving general peace through his balance of power strategy.

When William II became emperor inhe discarded Bismarck, began using bellicose language, and planned to build a navy to rival Britain's. Ever since Britain had taken control of South Africa from the Netherlands in the Napoleonic Warsit had run afoul of the Dutch settlers who further away and created two republics of their own. The British imperial vision called for control over the new countries and the Dutch-speaking "Boers" or "Afrikaners" fought back in the War in — Outgunned by a mighty empire, the Boers waged a guerilla war, which gave the British regulars a difficult fight, but weight of numbers, superior equipment, and often brutal tactics eventually brought about a British victory.

The war had been costly in human rights and was widely criticised by Liberals in Britain and worldwide. However, the United States gave its support. The Boer republics were merged into Union of South Africa in ; it had internal self-government but its foreign policy was controlled by London and was an integral part of the British Empire.

The severe difficulty in defeating the Boers Had a series of repercussions inside but. In military terms, it was clear that the Cardwell reforms have been inadequate. The call to establish a general staff to control military operations had been shelved by the Duke of Cambridge, himself a royal with enormous authority.

It took a five more years to set up a general staff and other Army reforms, under the administration of Lord Haldane. Britain responded by a massive building program launched in by the highly controversial First Sea Lord, Sir John Fisher. He launched the HMS Dreadnought in It was the first modern battleship based on new armour. It needed new friends, and made a military alliance with Japan, and buried old controversies to make a close relationship with the United States.

Britain in addition to taking control of new territories, developed an enormous power in economic and financial affairs in numerous independent countries, especially in Latin America and Asia. It lent money, built railways, and engaged in trade. The Great London Exhibition of clearly demonstrated Britain's dominance in engineering, communications and industry; that lasted until the rise of the United States and Germany in the s.

In — under Salisbury Britain promoted a policy of Splendid isolation with no formal allies. Part of the agreement which led to the Act of Union stipulated that the Penal Laws in Ireland were to be repealed and Catholic Emancipation granted. However King George III blocked emancipation, arguing that to grant it would break his coronation oath to defend the Anglican Church.

A campaign under lawyer and politician Daniel O'Connelland the death of George III, led to the concession of Catholic Emancipation inallowing Catholics to sit in Parliament. O'Connell then mounted an unsuccessful campaign for the Repeal of the Act of Union. When potato blight hit the island inmuch of the rural population was left without food. Relief efforts were inadequate and hundreds of thousands died in the Great Hunger. Ireland became permanently smaller in terms of population.

Isaac Butt established a new moderate foreign exchange currency converter calculator movement, the Home Rule Leaguein the s. It became the Irish Parliamentary Partya major political force dollar exchange rate japanese yen the guidance of William Shaw and a radical young Protestant landowner, Charles Stewart Parnell.

It dominated Irish politics, reaching from conservative landowners to the Land League which was campaigning for fundamental reform of Irish landholding, where download forex income engine 2.0 farms were held on rental from large estates. Parnell's movement campaigned for 'Home Rule', by which they meant that Ireland would govern itself options optionstrading trading seminars los angeles a region within the United Kingdom, in contrast to O'Connell who wanted complete independence subject to a shared monarch and Crown.

Two Home Rule Bills and were introduced by Liberal Prime Minister Gladstone, but neither became law. The issue divided Ireland, for a significant unionist minority largely though by no means exclusively based in Ulsteropposed Home Rule, fearing that a Catholic-Nationalist parliament in Dublin would discriminate against them and would also impose tariffs on industry; while most of Ireland was primarily agricultural, six counties in Ulster were the location of heavy industry and would be affected by options break even point calculator tariff barriers imposed.

Historically, the aristocracy was divided between Conservatives and Liberals. However, when Gladstone committed to home rule for Ireland, Britain's upper classes largely abandoned the Liberal party, giving the Conservatives a large permanent majority in the House of Lords. High Society in London, following the Queen, largely ostracized home rulers, and Liberal clubs were badly split. Joseph Chamberlain took a major element of upper-class supporters out of the Party and into a third party called "Liberal Unionism" that collaborated with and eventually merged into the Conservative party.

The Programme had a strong appeal to the Nonconformist middle-class Liberal element, which felt liberated by the departure of the aristocracy. The Queen played a small role in politics, but became the iconic symbol of the nation, the empire, and proper, restrained behaviour.

As forex fw-03lux driver symbol of domesticity, endurance and Empire, and as a woman holding the highest public office during an age when middle- and upper-class belajar pivot point forex were expected to beautify the home while men dominated the public sphere, Queen Victoria's influence has been enduring.

Her success as ruler was due to the power of the self-images she successively portrayed of innocent young woman, devoted wife and mother, suffering and patient widow, and grandmotherly matriarch. Lord Palmerston — dominated foreign policy for decades, through a period when Britain was at the height of its power, serving terms as both Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister.

He was intensely patriotic; he used the Royal Navy to undermine the Atlantic slave trade. Taylor has summarised his career by emphasising the how much money does brock lesnar make per fight. Disraeli and Gladstone dominated the politics of the late 19th century, Britain's golden age of parliamentary government.

They long were idolized, but historians in recent decades have become much more critical, especially regarding Disraeli. Benjamin Disraeli —prime minister and —80remains an iconic hero of the Conservative Party. He played a central role in the creation the Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.

Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal leader William Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or "Tory democracy". He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He was born into a Jewish family, which became Episcopalian when he was 12 years old.

Disraeli fought to protect established political, social, and religious values and elites; he emphasized the need for national leadership in response to radicalism, uncertainty, and materialism. Gladstone denounced Disraeli's policies of territorial aggrandizement, military pomp, and imperial symbolism such as making the Queen Empress of Indiasaying it did not fit a modern commercial and Christian nation.

In foreign policy he is best known for battling and besting Russia. Disraeli's second term was dominated by the Eastern Question —the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of Russia, to gain at its expense.

stock market capitalism welfare capitalism japan and germany versus the anglo-saxons. 2000

Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company in Ottoman-controlled Egypt. Infaced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to maintain peace in the Balkans and made terms favourable to Britain which weakened Russia, its longstanding enemy. Disraeli's old reputation as the "Tory democrat" and promoter of the welfare state has faded as historians argue that he had few proposals for social legislation in —80, and that the Reform Act did not reflect a vision for the unenfranchised working man.

William Ewart Gladstone — was the Liberal counterpart to Disraeli, serving as prime minister four times —74, —85,and — Gladstone's first ministry saw many reforms including Disestablishment of the Protestant Church of Ireland and the introduction of secret voting. His party was defeated inbut made a comeback based on opposition to Turkey's Bulgarian atrocities against Christians. Gladstone's Midlothian Campaign of —80 was an pathbreaking introduction of many modern political campaigning techniques.

His Liberal party was increasingly pulled apart on the Irish issue. He proposed Irish home rule in ; It failed to pass and the resulting split in the Liberal Party kept it out of office for 20 years with only a short interruption. Stock market capitalism welfare capitalism japan and germany versus the anglo-saxons. 2000 financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes smh foreign exchange rates laissez-fairewere suited to a developing capitalist society but could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed.

Called the "Grand Old Man" later in life, he work from home jobs in bullhead city az always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to British workers and lower middle class.

The deeply religious Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics with his evangelical sensibility and opposition to aristocracy. His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents including Queen Victoria, who strongly favoured Disraeliand his heavy-handed control split the Liberal party.

His foreign policy goal currency trader jobs in mumbai to create a European order based on earnest money how much texas rather than conflict and mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest.

This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by the Germans with a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms. Historical writers have often played Disraeli and Gladstone against each other as great rivals. Historians agree that Lord Salisbury — as foreign minister and prime minister in the late 19th century was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs.

He had a superb grasp of the issues, and proved:. Historians portray Lord Salisbury as a talented leader who was an icon of traditional, aristocratic conservatism. Matthew points to "the narrow cynicism of Salisbury". Prime Ministers from to Marquess of SalisburyArthur Balfour how much money did lebron james make for the decision, Sir Henry Campbell-BannermanH.

AsquithDavid Lloyd GeorgeBonar LawStanley BaldwinRamsay MacDonaldStanley BaldwinRamsay MacDonaldStanley BaldwinNeville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill. The Liberal Party was in power when it formed a wartime coalition. It passed the welfare reforms that created a basic British welfare state. It weakened the veto power of Lords, blocked woman suffrage. In it apparently "solved" the problem of Irish Home Rule but when the war what is considered a stock market crash out the solution was shelved.

Asquith was Liberal Prime Minister between andfollowed by David Lloyd George Although Asquith was the Party leader, the dominant Liberal was Lloyd George. Asquith was overwhelmed by the wartime role of coalition prime minister, and Lloyd George replaced him as the coalition prime minister in late but Asquith remained Liberal party leader. The two fought for years over control of the party, badly weakening it in deca stock marketing game process.

Queen Victoria died in and her son Edward VII became king, inaugurating the Edwardian Era, which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era. With the advent of the 20th century, things such as motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were coming into use.

Calforex white rock bc new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism. The social reforms of the last century continued stock market capitalism welfare capitalism japan and germany versus the anglo-saxons. 2000 the 20th with the Labour Party being formed in Edward died into be succeeded by George Vdeca stock marketing game reigned — Scandal-free, hard working and popular, George V was the British monarch who, with Queen Mary, established the modern pattern of exemplary conduct for British royalty, based on middle-class values and virtues.

He understood the overseas Empire better than any of his prime ministers and used forex simulator historical data exceptional memory for figures and details, whether of uniforms, politics, or relations, to good effect in reaching out in conversation with his subjects.

The era was prosperous but political crises were escalating out of control. Dangerfield identified the "strange death of liberal England" as the multiple crisis that hit simultaneously in — with serious social and political instability arising from the Irish crisis, labor unrest, the women's suffrage movements, and partisan causes stock market problems and solutions constitutional struggles in Parliament.

At one point it even seemed the Army might refuse orders dealing with Northern Ireland. McKibben argues that the political party system of the Edwardian era was in delicate balance on the eve of the war in The The betting binary options guide review were in power with a progressive alliance of Labour and, off and on, Irish Nationalists.

The coalition was committed to free trade as opposed to the high tariffs the Conservatives soughtfree collective bargaining for trades unions which Conservatives opposedan active social policy that was forging the welfare state, and constitutional reform to reduce the power of the House of New trading systems and methods kaufman pdf. The coalition lacked a long-term plan, because it was cobbled together from leftovers from the s.

The sociological basis was non-Anglican religion and non-English ethnicity rather than the emerging class conflict emphasized by Labour.

Britain entered the war because of its implicit support for France, which had entered to support Russia, which in turn had entered to support Serbia. Even more important than that chain of links was Britain's determination to honour its commitment to defend Belgium. Britain was loosely part of the Triple Entente with France and Russia, which with smaller allies fought the Central Powers of Germany, Austria and the Ottoman Empire.

After a few weeks the Western Front turned into a killing ground in which millions of men died but no army made a large advance. The stalemate required an endless supply of men and munitions. Byvolunteering fell off, the government imposed conscription in Britain but not in Ireland to keep up the strength of the Army.

After a rough start in industrial mobilisation, Britain replaced prime minister Asquith in December with the much more dynamic Liberal leader David Lloyd George. The nation now successfully mobilised its manpower, womanpower, industry, finances, Empire and diplomacy, in league with France and the U. After defeating Russia, the Germans tried to win in the spring of before the millions of American soldiers arrived. They failed, and they were overwhelmed and finally accepted an Armistice in Novemberthat amounted to a surrender.

Britain eagerly supported the war, but in Ireland the Catholics were restless and plotted a rebellion in 60 minute observetod.bjack.hop.clickbank.net option trader trading trading trend failed but the brutal repression that followed turned that element against Britain. The War saw a decline of civilian consumption, with a major reallocation to munitions.

The Royal Navy dominated the seas, defeating the smaller German fleet in the only major naval battle of the war, the Battle of Jutland in Germany was blockaded, leading to an increasing shortage short of food. Germany's naval strategy increasingly turned towards use of U-Boats to strike back against the British, despite the risk of triggering war with the powerful neutral power, the United States.

The waters around Britain were declared a war zone where any ship, neutral or otherwise, was a target. After the liner Lusitania was sunk in Maydrowning over American passengers, protests by the United States led Germany to abandon unrestricted submarine warfare. With victory over Russia inGermany now calculated it could finally have numerical superiority on the Western Front.

Planning for a massive spring offensive init resumed the sinking of all merchant ships without cause crash hedging market stock. The US entered the war alongside how much money does david beckham get paid a year Allies without actually joining themand provided the needed money and supplies to sustain the Allies' war efforts.

The U-boat threat was ultimately defeated by a convoy system across the Atlantic. On other fronts, the British, French, Australians, and Japanese seized Germany's colonies. Britain fought the Ottoman Empire, suffering defeats in the Gallipoli Campaign and in Build a duplex and make moneywhile arousing the Arabs who helped expel the Turks from their lands.

Exhaustion and war-weariness were growing worse inas the fighting in France continued with no end in sight. The German spring offensives of failed, and with the summer arrival of American soldiers at a rate of 10, per day [ citation needed ]the Germans realised they were being overwhelmed. Germany agreed to a surrender on 11 November Victorian attitudes and ideals that had continued into the first years of the 20th century changed during World War I.

The army had traditionally never been a large employer in the nation, with the regular army standing atat the start of the war. The almost three million casualties were known as the "lost generation," and such numbers inevitably left society scarred; but even so, some people felt their sacrifice was little regarded in Britain, with poems like Siegfried Sassoon 's Blighters criticising the ill-informed jingoism of the home front.

The war had been won by Britain and its allies, but at a terrible human and financial cost, creating a sentiment that wars should never be fought again. The League of Nations was founded with the idea that nations could resolve their differences peacefully, but these hopes were unfulfilled. The harsh peace settlement imposed on Germany would leave it embittered and seeking revenge. At the Paris Peace Conference ofLloyd George, American President Woodrow Wilson and French premier Georges Clemenceau made all the major decisions.

They formed the League of Nations as a mechanism to prevent future wars. They sliced up the losers to form new nations in Europe, and divided up the German colonies and Ottoman holdings outside Turkey. They imposed what appeared to be heavy financial reparations but in the event were of modest size. They humiliated Germany by forcing it to declare its the educator stock market game activity sheet 1 answers for starting the war, a policy that caused deep resentment in Germany and stock broker fee malaysia fuel reactions such as Nazism.

Britain gained the German colony of Tanganyika and part of Togoland in Africa, while its dominions added other colonies. Britain gained League of Nations mandates over Palestine, which had been partly promised as a homeland for Jewish settlers, and Iraq. Iraq became fully independent in Egypt, which had been a British protectorate sincebecame independent inalthough the British remained there until Inthe House of Lords managed to delay a Home Rule bill passed by the House of Commons.

It was enacted as the Government of Ireland Act Civil war threatened when the Protestants of Northern Ireland refused to be placed under Anyoption binary options system memory control. Semi-military unites were formed ready to fight--the Unionist Ulster Volunteers opposed to the Act and their Catholic counterparts, the Irish Volunteers supporting the Act.

The outbreak of the World War in put the crisis on political hold. A disorganized Easter Rising in was brutally suppressed by the British, which had the effect of galvanizing Catholic demands for independence. An Anglo-Irish War was fought between Crown forces and the Irish Republican Army between January and Forex free margin negative The war ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December that established the Irish Free State.

Historian Arthur Marwick sees a radical transformation of British society resulting from the Great War, a deluge that swept away many old attitudes and brought in a more equalitarian society.

He sees the famous literary pessimism of the s as misplaced, arguing there were major positive long-term consequences of the war to British society.

He points to an energized self-consciousness among workers that quickly built up the Labour Party, the coming of partial woman suffrage, and an acceleration of europa universalis iv making money reform and state wheat stock market of the automated currency system trading. He sees a decline of deference toward the aristocracy and established authority in general, and the weakening among youth of traditional restraints on individual moral behavior.

The chaperone faded away; village druggists sold contraceptives. Marwick says that class distinctions softened, national cohesion increased, and British society became more equal. As a leisure, literacy, wealth, ease of travel, and a broadened sense of community grew in Britain from the late 19th century onward, there was more time and interest in leisure activities of all sorts, on the part of all classes.

Tourists flocked to seaside resorts; Blackpool hosted 7 million visitors a year in the s. There were class differences with upper-class clubs, and working-class and middle-class pubs.

Participation in sports and all sorts of leisure activities increased for the average Englishman, and his interest in spectator sports increased dramatically.

By the s the cinema and radio attracted all classes, ages and genders in very large numbers, with young women taking the lead. They sang along at the music hall, fancied their pigeons, gambled on horse racing, and took the family to Blackpool metatrader4 broker forex commodity summer.

The cartoon realization of this life style Andy Capp began in Political activists complained that working-class leisure diverted men away from revolutionary agitation. The British film industry emerged in the s when cinemas in general broke through in the western world, and built heavily on the strong reputation of the London legitimate theater for actors, directors and producers.

It bought up the top talent, especially when Hollywood came to the fore in the s and produced over 80 percent of the total world output. Efforts to fight back were futile—the government set a quota for British made films, but it failed.

Hollywood furthermore dominated the lucrative Canadian and Australian markets. Bollywood based in Bombay dominated the huge Indian market. There was a revival of creativity in the era, especially with the arrival of Jewish filmmakers and actors fleeing the Nazis. In Liverpool 40 percent of the population attended one shop trading hours anzac day nsw 2013 the 69 cinemas once a week; 25 percent went twice.

Traditionalists grumbled about the American cultural invasion, but the permanent impact was minor. In radio, British audiences had no choice apart from the upscale programming of the BBC, a government agency which had a monopoly on broadcasting. John Reith —an intensely moralistic engineer, was in full charge. His goal was to broadcast, "All that is best in every department of human knowledge, endeavor and achievement The preservation of a high moral tone is obviously of paramount importance.

There was no paid advertising on the BBC; all the revenue came from a tax on receiving sets. Highbrow audiences, however, greatly enjoyed pinoy stock trader. Boat races were well covered along with tennis and horse racing, but BBC was reluctant to spend its severely limited air time on long football or cricket games, regardless of their popularity.

The British showed a more profound interest in sports, and in greater variety, that any rival. They gave pride of place to such moral issues as sportsmanship and fair play.

Football proved highly attractive to the urban working classes, which introduced mcdonalds trading hours anzac day rowdy spectator to the sports world.

In some sports, there was significant controversy in the fight for amateur purity especially in rugby and rowing. New games became popular almost overnight, including golf, lawn tennis, cycling and hockey. Women were much more likely to enter these sports than the old established ones. The aristocracy and landed gentry, with their ironclad control over land rights, dominated hunting, shooting, fishing and horse racing.

Cricket had become well-established among post office australia foreign exchange rates English upper class in the 18th century, And was a major factor in sports competition among the public schools. Army units around the Empire had time on their hands, and encouraged the locals to learn cricket so they could have some entertaining competition.

Most of the Empire embraced cricket, with the exception of Canada. For sports to become fully professionalised, coaching had to come first. It gradually professionalised in the Victorian era and the role was well established by In the First World War, military lucasville trade days dates sought out the coaches to supervise physical conditioning and develop morale-building teams.

As literacy and leisure time expanded afterreading became a popular pastime.

Opinion

New additions to adult fiction doubled during the s, reaching new books a year by Libraries tripled their stock, and saw heavy demand for new fiction. The first titles included novels by Ernest Hemingway and Agatha Christie. They were sold cheap usually sixpence in a wide variety of inexpensive stores such as Woolworth's.

Penguin aimed at stock market 706 educated middle class "middlebrow" audience. It avoided the downscale image of American paperbacks. The line signaled cultural self-improvement and political education. The more polemical Penguin Specials, typically with a leftist stock trading training in hyderabad for Labour readers, were widely distributed during World War II.

Romantic fiction was especially popular, with Mills and Boon the leading publisher. The story line in magazines and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. Two major programs that permanently expanded the welfare state passed in and with surprisingly little debate, even as the Conservatives dominated parliament. The Housing and Town Planning Act of set up a system of government housing that followed the campaign promises of "homes fit for heroes.

The treasury subsidized the low rents. In England and Wales,houses were built, and the Ministry of 401k keep bulk in money market new into stocks became largely a ministry of housing. The Unemployment Insurance Act of passed at a time of very little unemployment.

It set up the dole system that provided 39 weeks of unemployment benefits to practically the entire civilian working population except domestic service, farm workers, and civil servants. Funded in part by weekly contributions from both employers and employed, it provided weekly payments of 15s for unemployed men and 12s for unemployed women.

Historian Charles Mowat calls these two laws "Socialism by the back door," and notes how forex dummies pdf politicians were when the costs to the Treasury soared during the high unemployment of The Lloyd George ministry fell apart in Stanley Baldwinas leader of the Conservative Party —37 and as Prime Minister in —24, —29 and —37dominated British politics.

Baldwin's political strategy was to polarize the electorate so that voters would choose between the Conservatives on the right and the Labour Party on the left, squeezing out the Liberals in the middle. Baldwin's reputation soared in the s and s, but crashed after as he was blamed for the appeasement policies toward Germany, and as admirers of Churchill made him the Conservative icon.

Since the s Baldwin's reputation has recovered somewhat. Labour won the election, but in Baldwin and the Conservatives returned with a large majority. Clubpenguinhq moneymaker 2016 finds that the political culture of the interwar period paypal money earning sites built around an anti-socialist middle class, supported by the Conservative leaders, especially Baldwin.

Taxes rose sharply during the war and never returned to their old levels. Much of the money went for the dole, the weekly unemployment benefits. Taylor argues most people "were enjoying a richer life than any previously known in the history of the world: The British economy was lackluster in the s, with sharp declines and high unemployment in heavy industry and coal, especially in Scotland and Wales. Exports of coal and steel fell in half by and the business community was slow to adopt the new labour and management principles coming from the US, such as Fordismconsumer credit, eliminating surplus capacity, designing a more structured management, and using greater economies of scale.

With the very sharp decline in world trade afterits condition became critical. Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill put Britain back on the gold standard inwhich many economists blame for the mediocre performance of the economy. Others point to a variety of factors, including the inflationary effects of the World War and supply-side shocks caused by reduced working hours after the war.

By the late s, economic performance had stabilised, but the overall forex live rate commodity was disappointing, for Britain had fallen behind the United States as the leading industrial power.

There also remained a strong economic divide fx options payoff diagrams the north and south of England during this period, with the south of England and the Midlands fairly prosperous by the Thirties, while parts of south Wales and the industrial north of England became known as "distressed areas" due to particularly high rates of unemployment and poverty.

Despite this, the standard of living continued to improve as local councils built new houses to let to families rehoused from outdated slumswith up to date facilities including indoor toilets, letra dejate llevar yaga mackie ft d&o money makers and electric lighting now being included in the new properties.

The private sector enjoyed a housebuilding boom during the s. During the war, trade unions were encouraged and their membership grew from 4. They peaked at 8. Coal was a sick industry; the best seams were being exhausted, raising the cost.

Demand fell as oil began replacing coal for fuel. The general strike was a nine-day nationwide walkout of 1. The miners had rejected the owners' demands for longer hours and reduced pay in the face of falling prices. To support the miners the Trades Union Congress TUCan umbrella organization of all trades unions, called out certain critical unions. The hope was the government would intervene to reorganize and rationalize the industry, and raise stas davydov strategy binary options subsidy.

The Conservative government had penny plan stock trading software supplies and essential services continued with middle class volunteers. All three major parties opposed the strike. The Labour Party leaders did not approve and feared it would tar the party with the image of radicalism, for the Cominterm in Moscow had sent instructions for Communists to aggressively promote the strike.

The general strike itself was largely non-violent, but the miners' lockout continued and there was violence in Scotland. It was the only general strike in British history, for TUC leaders such as Ernest Bevin considered it a mistake. Most historians treat it as a singular event with few long-term consequences, but Martin Pugh says it accelerated the movement of working-class voters to the Labour Party, which led to future gains.

That act was largely repealed in The coal industry, used up the more accessible coal as costs rose output fell from million tons in to million in The Great Depression originated in the United States in late ny close forex brokers quickly spread to the world.

Britain had never experienced the boom that had characterized the US, Germany, Canada and Australia in the s, so its bust appeared less severe. At the depth in summerregistered unemployed numbered 3. Experts tried to remain optimistic. John Maynard Keyneswho had not predicted the slump, said, what is forex pamm account will be no serious direct consequences in London.

We find the look ahead decidedly encouraging. Doomsayers on the left such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb, J. Cole repeated the dire warnings they had been making for years about the the neatest little guide to stock market investing download free death of capitalism, only now far more people paid attention. Inby which time unemployment stock broker fee malaysia lower, unemployed men made a highly publicized march from Jarrow to London in a bid to show the plight of the industrial poor.

Although much romanticized forex bot python the Left, the Jarrow Crusade marked a deep split in the Labour Party and resulted in no government action. George Orwell 's book The Road to Wigan Pier gives a bleak overview of the hardships of the time.

Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the World War made Britain and its leaders strongly inclined to pacifism in the interwar era.

The challenge came from dictators, first Benito Mussolini of Italy, then Adolf Hitler of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it was unable to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators.

British policy was to "appease" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe; when Germany did invade Poland in SeptemberBritain and France declared war; the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.

Britain, along with the dominions and the rest of the Empire, declared war on Nazi Germany inafter the German invasion of Poland. After a quiet period of " phoney war ", the French and British armies collapsed under German onslaught in spring The British with the thinnest of margins rescued its main army from Dunkirk as well as many French soldiersleaving all their equipment and war supplies behind.

Winston Churchill came to power, promising to fight the Germans to the very end. The Germans threatened an invasion—which the Royal Navy was prepared to repel. First the Germans tried to achieve air supremacy but were defeated by the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain in late summer Japan declared war in Decemberand quickly seized Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma, and threatened Australia and India. Britain formed an alliance with the Soviet Union starting in and very close ties to the United States starting in The war was very expensive.

It was paid for by high taxes, by selling off assets, and by accepting large amounts of Lend Lease from the U. The American and Canadian aid did not have to be repaid, but there were also American loans that were repaid. Welfare conditions, especially regarding food, improved during the war as the government imposed rationing and subsidized food prices.

Conditions for housing worsened of course with the bombing, and clothing was in short supply. Equality increased dramatically, as incomes declined sharply for the wealthy and for white collar workers, as their taxes soared, while blue collar workers benefited from rationing and price controls. People demanded an expansion of the welfare state as a reward to the people for their wartime sacrifices [] The goal was operationalized in a famous report by William Beveridge.

It recommended that the various income maintenance services that a grown-up piecemeal since be systematized and made universal.

Unemployment benefits and sickness benefits were to be universal. There would be new benefits for maternity. The old-age pension system would be revised and expanded, and require that a person retired. A full-scale National Health Service would provide free medical care for everyone.

All the major parties endorsed the principles and they were largely put into effect when peace returned. The media called it a "people's war"—a term that caught on and signified the popular demand for planning and an expanded welfare state.

They refused to leave London during the Blitz and were indefatigable in visiting troops, munition factories, dockyards, and hospitals all over the country. Princess Elizabeth joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service ATS—a part of the army and repaired trucks and jeeps. The themes of equality and sacrifice were dominant both during the war, and in the memory of the war.

There was little antiwar sentiment during or after the war. Furthermore, Britain turned more toward the collective welfare state during the war, expanding it in the late s and reaching a broad consensus supporting it across party lines.

By the s and s, however, historians were exploring the subtle elements of continuing diversity and conflict in society during the war period. Later historians pointed to the many many localized unofficial strikes, especially in coal mining, shipbuilding, the metal trades, and engineering, with as many as 3. Britain was a winner in the war, but it lost India in and nearly all the rest of the Empire by It debated its role in world affairs and joined the United Nations inNATO inwhere it became a close ally of the United States.

Prosperity returned in the s and London remained a world center of finance and culture, but the nation was no longer a major world power. The end of the war saw a landslide victory for Clement Attlee and the Labour Party. They were elected on a manifesto of greater social justice with left wing policies such as the creation of a National Health Servicean expansion of the provision of council housing and nationalisation of the major industries.

Britain faced severe financial crises, and responded by reducing her international responsibilities and by sharing the hardships of an "age of austerity. Rationing and conscription dragged on into the post war years, and the country suffered one of the worst winters on record. Labour Party experts went into the files to find the detailed plans for nationalisation that had been developed.

To their surprise, there were no plans. The leaders realized they had to act fast to keep up the momentum of the electoral landslide. They started with the Bank of Englandcivil aviation, coal, and cables and wireless. Then came railways, canals, road haulage and trucking, electricity, and gas. Finally came iron and steel, which was a special case because it was a manufacturing industry. Altogether, about one fifth of the economy had been nationalised. Labour dropped its plans to nationalise farmlands.

The procedure used was developed by Herbert Morrisonwho as Lord President chaired the Committee on the Socialization of Industries. He followed the model that was already in place of setting up public corporations such as the BBC in broadcasting As the owners of corporate stock were given government bonds, and the government took full ownership of each affected company, consolidating it into a national monopoly.

The management remained the same, only now they became civil servants working for the government. For the Labour Party leadership, nationalisation was a method to consolidate economic planning in their own hands. It was not designed to modernise old industries, make them efficient, or transform their organisational structure. There was no money for modernisation, although the Marshall Planoperated separately by American planners, did force many British businesses to adopt modern managerial techniques.

Socialism was in place, but it did not seem to make a major difference. Rank-and-file workers had long been motivated to support Labour by tales of the mistreatment of workers by foremen and the management. The foremen and the managers were the same men as before with much the same power over the workplace.

There was no worker control of industry. The unions resisted government efforts to set wages. By the time of the general elections in andLabour seldom boasted about nationalisation of industry.

Instead it was the Conservatives who decried the inefficiency and mismanagement, and promised to reverse the takeover of steel and trucking. As the country headed into the s, rebuilding continued and a number of immigrants from the remaining British Empiremostly the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent, were invited to help the rebuilding effort. As the s wore on, Britain lost its place as a superpower and could no longer maintain its large Empire.

This led to decolonisation, and a withdrawal from almost all of its colonies by Events such as the Suez Crisis showed that the UK's status had fallen in the world. The s and s were, however, relatively prosperous times after the Second World War, and saw the beginning of a modernisation of the UK, with the construction of its first motorways for example, and also during the s a great cultural movement began which expanded across the world.

Unemployment was relatively low during this period and the standard of living continued to rise with more new private and council housing developments taking place and the number of slum properties diminishing. As summed up by R. Inthe UK standard of living was higher than in any EEC country apart from Belgium. By the earlier Seventies, however, the UK standard of living was lower than all EEC countries apart from Italy which, according to one calculation, was roughly equal to Britain.

In addition, food rations were lifted in while hire-purchase controls were relaxed in the same year. As a result of these changes, large numbers of the working classes were able to participate in the consumer market for the first time.

National wealth has grown considerably, and although the shareout of this among the social classes has remained substantially of the same proportions, it has meant a considerable rise in the standard of living of all classes. It is estimated that in Britain at the turn of the century average earnings in industry sufficed merely to meet the essential needs of a two-child family, today average earnings allow the industrial wage-earner to spend a third of his income on things other than basic needs.

By the end of the s, Britain had become one of the world's most affluent countries, and by the early Sixties, most Britons enjoyed a level of prosperity that had previously been known only to a small minority of the population. InQueen magazine declared that "Britain has launched into an age of unparalleled lavish living. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan claimed that "the luxuries of the rich have become the necessities of the poor. In addition, as noted by John Burnett.

What was equally striking was that ownership of such things had spread down the social scale and the gap between professional and manual workers had considerably narrowed. The provision of household amenities steadily improved during the second half of the twentieth century. Between andhowever, Britain was overtaken by most of the countries of the European Common Market in terms of the number of telephones, refrigerators, television sets, cars, and washing machines per of the population although Britain remained high in terms of bathrooms and lavatories per people.

Although the British standard of living was increasing, the standard of living in other countries increased faster. In ten years, from having had a much higher standard of living than the continent, they have slipped right back. InUK wages were amongst the lowest in Western Europe, being half of West German rates and two-thirds of Italian rates. Britain's control over its Empire loosened during the interwar period. Nationalism strengthened in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and in Egypt.

Between andthe UK had granted AustraliaCanadaand New Zealand "Dominion" status near complete autonomy within the Empire. They became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations known as the Commonwealth of Nations sincean informal but close-knit association that succeeded the British Empire.

Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan inthe remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth, almost all of them as independent members. There are, however, 13 former British colonies, including BermudaGibraltarthe Falkland Islandsand others, which have elected to continue rule by London and are known as British Overseas Territories.

His goals were blocked by militant Protestants led by the Rev. Clashes escalated out of control as the army could barely contain the Provisional Irish Republican Army IRA and the Ulster Defence Association.

British leaders feared their withdrawal would give a "Doomsday Scenario," with widespread communal strife, followed by the mass exodus of hundreds of thousands of refugees. London shut down Northern Ireland's parliament and began direct rule. By the s, the failure of the IRA campaign to win mass public support or achieve its aim of a British withdrawal led to negotiations that in produced the ' Good Friday Agreement '. It won popular support and largely ended the Troubles.

After the relative prosperity of the s and s, the UK experienced extreme industrial strife and stagflation through the s following a global economic downturn; Labour had returned to government in under Harold Wilson to end 13 years of Conservative rule. The Conservatives were restored to government in under Edward Heathwho failed to halt the country's economic decline and was ousted in as Labour returned to power under Harold Wilson.

The economic crisis deepened following Wilson's return and things fared little better under his successor James Callaghan. A strict modernisation of its economy began under the controversial Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher following her election as prime minister inwhich saw a time of record unemployment as deindustrialisation saw the end of much of the country's manufacturing industries but also a time of economic boom as stock markets became liberalised and State-owned industries became privatised.

However the miners' strike of — sparked the end of most of the UK's coal mining. The exploitation of North Sea gas and oil brought in substantial tax and export revenues to aid the new economic boom. This was also the time that the IRA took the issue of Northern Ireland to Great Britainmaintaining a prolonged bombing campaign on the British mainland.

After the economic boom of the s a brief but severe recession occurred between and following the economic chaos of Black Wednesday under government of John Majorwho had succeeded Margaret Thatcher in However the rest of the s saw the beginning of a period of continuous economic growth that lasted over 16 years and was greatly expanded under the New Labour government of Tony Blair following his landslide election victory inwith a rejuvenated party having abandoned its commitment to policies including nuclear disarmament and nationalisation of key industries, and no reversal of the Thatcher-led union reforms.

From up untilincome per head had doubled, while ownership of various household goods had significantly increased. Holiday entitlements had also become more generous. Innine out of ten full-time manual workers were entitled to more than four weeks of paid holiday a year, while twenty years previously only two-thirds had been allowed three weeks or more. By the Nineties, however almost all homes had these amenities together with central heating, which was a luxury just two decades before.

Britain's wish to join the Common Market as the European Economic Community was known in Britain was first expressed in July by the Macmillan government.

It was vetoed in by French President Charles de Gaulle. Like the first, though, it was vetoed by de Gaulle. Inwith DeGaulle gone, Conservative Prime Minister Heath negotiated terms for admission and Britain finally joined the Community. In opposition, the Labour Party was deeply divided, though its Leader, Harold Wilson, remained in favour.

In the General Election, the Labour Party manifesto included a pledge to renegotiate terms for Britain's membership and then hold a referendum on whether to stay in the EC on the new terms. This was a constitutional procedure without precedent in British history. In the subsequent referendum campaign, rather than the normal British tradition of "collective responsibility", under which the government takes a policy position which all cabinet members are required to support publicly, members of the Government and the Conservative opposition were free to present their views on either side of the question.

A referendum was duly held on 5 Juneand the proposition to continue membership was passed with a substantial majority. The Single European Act SEA was the first major revision of the Treaty of Rome. Inthe Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher enacted it into UK law.

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The Maastricht Treaty transformed the European Community into the European Union. Inthe Conservative government under John Major ratified it, against the opposition of his backbench Maastricht Rebels. The Treaty of Lisbon introduced many changes to the treaties of the Union. Prominent changes included more qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministersincreased involvement of the European Parliament in the legislative process through extended codecision with the Council of Ministers, eliminating the pillar system and the creation of a President of the European Council with a term of two and a half years and a High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to present a united position on EU policies.

The Treaty of Lisbon will also make the Union's human rights charter, the Charter of Fundamental Rightslegally binding. The Lisbon Treaty also leads to an increase in the voting weight of the UK in the Council of the European Union from 8. In Julythe Labour government under Gordon Brown approved the treaty and the Queen ratified it.

On 11 Septemberon the th anniversary of the Scottish victory over the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridgea referendum was held on establishing a devolved Scottish Parliament. This resulted in an overwhelming 'yes' vote both to establishing the parliament and granting it limited tax varying powers.

One week later, a referendum in Wales on establishing a Welsh Assembly was also approved but with a very narrow majority. The first elections were held, and these bodies began to operate, in The creation of these bodies has widened the differences between the Countries of the United Kingdomespecially in areas like healthcare.

In the General Electionthe Labour Party won a second successive victory, though voter turnout dropped to the lowest level for more than 80 years. Bush launching the War on Terrorbeginning with the invasion of Afghanistan aided by British troops in October Thereafter, with the US focus shifting to Iraq, Tony Blair convinced the Labour and Conservative MPs to vote in favour of supporting the invasion of Iraqdespite huge anti-war marches held in London and Glasgow.

Forty-six thousand British troops, one-third of the total strength of the Army's land forces, were deployed to assist with the invasion of Iraq and thereafter British armed forces were responsible for security in southern Iraq.

All British forces were withdrawn in The Labour Party won the general election and a third consecutive term. They formed a minority government with plans to hold a referendum before to seek a mandate "to negotiate with the Government of the United Kingdom to achieve independence for Scotland. The response of the unionist parties was to establish the Calman Commission to examine further devolution of powers, [] a position that had the support of the Prime Minister. Responding to the findings of the review, the UK government announced on 25 Novemberthat new powers would be devolved to the Scottish Governmentnotably on how it can raise tax and carry out capital borrowing, and the running of Scottish Parliament elections.

Scottish Constitution Minister Michael Russell criticised the white paper, calling it "flimsy" and stating that their proposed Referendum Scotland Bill,whose own white paper was to be published five days later, would be "more substantial".

The election saw a decisive victory for the SNP which was able to form a majority government intent on delivering a referendum on independence. In the wake of the global economic crisis ofthe United Kingdom economy contracted, experiencing negative economic growth throughout The announcement in November that the economy had shrunk for the first time since late brought an end to 16 years of continuous economic growth. The plan comprised three parts.: With the UK officially coming out of recession in the fourth quarter of —ending six consecutive quarters of economic decline—the Bank of England decided against further quantitative easing.

The United Kingdom General Election of 6 May resulted in the first hung parliament sincewith the Conservative Party winning the largest number of seats, but falling short of the seats required for an overall majority.

Following this, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government for the UK since the end of the Second World War, with David Cameron becoming Prime Minister and Nick Clegg Deputy Prime Minister. Under the coalition government, British military aircraft participated in the UN-mandated intervention in the Libyan civil warflying a total of 3, air sorties against forces loyal to the Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi between March and October In late Octoberthe prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms voted to grant gender equality in the royal successionending the male-preference primogeniture that was mandated by the Act of Settlement On 18 September, a referendum was held in Scotland on whether to leave the United Kingdom and become an independent country.

The three UK-wide political parties - Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats - campaigned together as part of the Better Together campaign while the pro-independence Scottish National Party was the main force in the Yes Scotland campaign, together with the Scottish Green Party and the Scottish Socialist Party.

Days before the vote, with the opinion polls closing, the three Better Together party leaders issued 'The Vow'a promise of more powers for Scotland in the event of a No vote.

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The election was held on 7 May with pre-election polls all predicting a close race and a hung parliament. The surprising result on the night was a clear victory by the Conservative Party: The other most significant result of the election was the Scottish National Party winning all but three of the 59 seats in Scotland, a gain of This had been widely forecast as opinion polls had recorded a surge in support for the SNP following the independence referendum, and SNP party membership had more than quadrupled from 25, to over , meaning that 1 in every 50 of the population of Scotland was a party member.

The Liberal Democrats lost 49 of their 57 seats, as they were punished for their decision to form a coalition with the conservatives in On 20 FebruaryBritish Prime Minister David Cameron announced that a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union would be held on 23 Junefollowing years of campaigning by eurosceptics. Debates and campaigns by parties supporting both "Remain" and "Leave" focused on concerns regarding trade and the single marketsecuritymigration and sovereignty.

The result of the referendum was in favour of the country leaving the EU with However the name was not applied to the state as a unit; both England and Scotland continued to be governed independently. Its validity as a name of the Crown is also questioned, given that monarchs continued using separate ordinals e. To avoid confusion, historians generally avoid using the term "King of Great Britain" until and instead to match the ordinal usage call the monarchs kings or queens of England and Scotland.

Separate ordinals were abandoned when the two states merged in accordance with the Acts of Unionwith subsequent monarchs using ordinals apparently based on English not Scottish history it might be argued that the monarchs have simply taken the higher ordinal, which to date has always been English.

One example is Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdomwho is referred to as being "the Second" even though there never was an Elizabeth I of Scotland or Great Britain. Thus the term "Great Britain" is generally used from From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the history of the British Isles before the United Kingdom, see History of the British Isles. Part of a series on the. Treaty of Union and Acts of Union Union of the Crowns and History of the formation of the United Kingdom.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Act of Union The United Kingdom in the Napoleonic Wars. Eastern Question and Crimean War. History of Ireland — and Great Famine Ireland. History of the United Kingdom during World War I. Irish Home Rule billsPartition of Irelandand Irish War of Independence. Sport in the United Kingdom. Great Depression in the United Kingdom. Postwar Britain and History of the United Kingdom —present. History of the United Kingdom —present. Scottish devolution and Welsh devolution.

Scottish independence referendum, United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, and Brexit. Military history of the United Kingdom History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom Economic history of the United Kingdom Timeline of British diplomatic history History of women in the United Kingdom History of journalism in the United Kingdom List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom Politics of the United Kingdom Religion in the United Kingdom History of England History of Northern Ireland History of Scotland Timeline of Scottish history History of Wales.

However, the actual name of the new state was "Great Britain". A History of Britain. October — March parliament. America's Last King FallVol. The Occasional Conformity Bills and the Attempts by the House of Lords to Outlaw the Tack in the Reign of Anne. Mitchell, "The Whigs, the People, and Reform," Proceedings of the British AcademyVol. Foreign Visitors' Impressions, " Proceedings of the British AcademyVol.

Kozub, "Evolution of Taxation in England, — A Period of War and Industrialization," Journal of European Economic History, FallVol. The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. Official year book of the Commonwealth of Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Ward, The Irish Constitutional Tradition p Britain and the Americas: MarriottModern England: Thompson, Rise of Respectable Society: The Alabama, British Neutrality, and the American Civil War.

Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: Anthony Morris, "Haldane's army reforms —8: Lambert, Sir John Fisher's naval revolution U of South Carolina Press, Hexter, "The Protestant revival and the Catholic question in England, Atlas of the Great Irish Famine presents broad-ranging coverage. Guinnane and Ronald I. Chamberlain, Hartington, and the Conservatives, A Short History of the Liberal Party: The Road Back to Power. Taylor, "Lord Palmerston," History Today JanVol.

Disraeli, Gladstone and revolution Matthew, "Gladstone, William Ewart — ", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ; online edn, Mayhttp: Arnstein, Britain Yesterday and Today: Gladstone and Disraeli is popular, while Richard Aldous, The Lion and The Unicorn: Gladstone and Disraeli is scholarly.

For the historiography see Roland Quinault, "Gladstone and Disraeli: Ellenberger, "Salisbury" in David Loades, ed. Reader's Guide to British History 2: Marsh, The Discipline of Popular Government: Lloyd George Replaces Asquith: The Issues Underlying the Drama. The Oxford Companion to British History. Beckett, The Great War: The Last Great War: British Society and the First World War. Beckett, The Home Front, — With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in Peacemaking after the First World War, — 2nd ed.

Beck, "Leisure and Sport in Britain. Walton, The English seaside resort. A social history Walton, Leisure in Britain, A Critical History The Kaleidoscopic World of Lance Sieveking, a British Radio Modernist".

Twentieth Century British History. A Century of Rejection of the Imperial Game, ". Journal of Sport History. Class, Domesticity, and Bohemianism The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton et al. The interwar years revisited". Journal of European Economic History. The political economy of British shipping in the s".

Journal of Transport History. Unstead, "A Century of Change: Journal of Contemporary History. The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars. The 'New Labour Party' of Jarrow and Ellen Wilkinson, M. The historiography of appeasement and British national identity. Journal of Economic History. Its origins and outcomes. Havighurst, Britain in Transition: Britain and the home front during the Second World War". A Companion to Contemporary Britain: The Way We Were: Penguin Books Limited, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.

Council Estates and Consumer Society. A New History of the Labour Party London: A History of the Global Economy. From to the Present.

The Political Economy of French EC Policy, — Part 2. The British experience of irregular warfare. Archived from the original on 30 November Retrieved 30 November Black 18 May"Scottish election: SNP profile"BBC Newsarchived from the original on 4 June Cameron gives green light to referendum guardian.

Retrieved 9 March Retrieved 20 October BBC, 28 October Retrieved 29 October Association of British Insurers. Retrieved 11 August Daily Mail28 October National Catholic Reporter28 October Retrieved 22 March The New York Times. Retrieved 24 June UK 'must not delay leaving'BBC News.

Retrieved 26 June David Cameron to quit after UK votes to leave EU". Ireland United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales. Guernsey Jersey Isle of Man Sark. Ireland—United Kingdom relations British—Irish Council British—Irish Intergovernmental Conference British—Irish Parliamentary Assembly Common Travel Area.

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